The Top 5 Gut Disruptors and How to Recover

by Emma Loewe • December 5, 2024

Sound the alarms: These disruptions can all send your gut into invisible warfare. Here’s our game plan for quickly defeating them so you can restore peace in your microbial kingdom.

12 minutes
66 Citations
Share
https://seed.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/5TopDirsuptorstotheGutMicrobiomeandHowtoRecover_Cultured_121024-1024x483.jpeg

Written by Emma Loewe: Writer, author, and editor of Cultured. Her writing explores the intersection of nature, climate, and human health. Emma is the author of “Return to Nature” and “The Spirit Almanac.”
Reviewed by Jennie O’Grady: Senior SciComms Specialist at Seed Health

Once a disruptor enters the amphitheater of the gut, a battle to the death ensues. These invisible foes compete with our resident microbes for resources, clash over who will control the walls of the intestinal kingdom, and vie for their right to rule the vast territory of the microbiome. 

At Seed, this digestive drama is basically our Roman Empire. We’re constantly monitoring the most powerful disruptors, observing how they function, and researching how to defeat them as fast as possible. Here’s our game plan for quickly defeating five formidable disruptors of the gut microbiome.

Defense, Disruption, and Dysbiosis

The strongest and most resilient gut environments tend to have a few things in common: They contain a diversity of bacterial species, and they’re surrounded by a healthy, selectively permeable intestinal barrier, or “gut barrier.”1

You can think of the gut barrier as the defensive wall surrounding your gut health kingdom. 

When functioning properly, the gut barrier is highly selective about what passes through it in either direction. Composed of dynamic layers of microbes, mucus, and immune cells, it keeps potentially dangerous predators out of the intestines while allowing beneficial nutrients and other compounds to be absorbed.2 

When the gut barrier is compromised, it can lead to “leaky gut”—a condition where unwanted particles such as microbial fragments, undigested food, and toxins enter the bloodstream, leading to inflammation and immune dysregulation.3 Over time, chronic inflammation can disrupt microbial diversity and make the gut more favorable to pathogenic or opportunistic microbes. 

Ongoing disruption of the gut microbiome can result in dysbiosis, a state where the composition, diversity, or function of the gut microbiota is altered in a way that may negatively impact health.

Signs of a Gut in Distress

In the short term, gut disruptors can reduce the diversity and richness of the microbiome, threaten the integrity of the gut barrier, and slow the production of microbial metabolites like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are also critical building blocks for a tight gut barrier.4,5,6 Some of these changes can happen in as little as one day.7

This can lead to:

  • Gas and bloating8
  • Difficulty passing stool9
  • Unwanted changes in stool (i.e., frequency, texture)10
  • Fatigue and low energy11
  • Trouble maintaining a healthy weight12
  • Low mood or high stress levels13
  • Dull or irritated skin14

If left unchecked, the toxins that pass through the gut barrier can go on to negatively impact the immune system and cause chronic inflammation. This could result in longer-term damage to digestion, as well as mental health, skin, hormone balance, liver health, and more.15,16,17,18,19 

Thankfully, the gut barrier is resilient and dynamic.20 Just because one watchtower is destroyed, it doesn’t mean your castle is thrown into chaos. You can take steps or repair the damage and rebuild an even stronger microbial army using the tips below. 

SUMMARY

Gut disruptors can create conditions that allow harmful bacteria or pathogens to thrive. If left unchecked, these changes can upset your gut’s microbial balance and contribute to the weakening of the intestinal barrier—making the gut more vulnerable to long-term issues. By staying aware of the main microbiome disruptors, you can take proactive steps to support your gut environment.

Which Gut Disruptors Should I Watch Out For?

Get to know the five most common gut disruptors, how they impact the microbiome, and how to recover from them STAT.

1. Western and High-Sugar Diets

Sugar is particularly damaging to the microbial landscape. Eating a high-sugar diet (in which approximately 15% of your total calories come from added sugars) is known to increase the abundance of pathogenic, pro-inflammatory fungi or bacteria (like Proteobacteria) while decreasing bacteria that help maintain a strong gut barrier (like Bacteroidetes).21,22 

Research has also found that simple sugars (like fructose and glucose) block the production of a key protein that helps beneficial bacteria thrive in the gut.23 High-sugar diets can also go on to impair memory and make it harder to adapt to new situations via the bidirectional communication network known as the gut-brain axis.24 

Summary

The stereotypical Western diet is high in sugar, saturated fat, and ultra-processed treats. None of these food groups are beneficial for the microbiome, and some might actively disrupt it.

How to recover: 

Every meal is an opportunity to feed your beneficial gut bacteria the nutrients they need. Following a sugar spike, it’s best to load your plate with foods that are rich in fiber. Since it’s a complex carbohydrate, fiber withstands the early stages of digestion and is still relatively intact by the time it reaches the colon. There, your gut bacteria can consume it for energy, releasing beneficial metabolites such as SCFAs in the process.25

Fiber has been shown to increase gut microbiota diversity and abundance in as little as 24 hours.26 The resulting SCFAs can then help the gut barrier re-establish and recover from any damage.27

Probiotics can also help your gut bounce back after a meal that’s left you feeling less than your best. They help support your gut in a few ways: When you take a probiotic, you introduce new beneficial bacteria into your gut that consume resources (e.g., sugars, amino acids) that would otherwise be available to pathogenic microbes. 

Many probiotics can also produce substances like bacteriocins, organic acids (e.g., lactic acid, acetic acid), or hydrogen peroxide. These can directly kill pathogenic microbes, or alter the pH of the gut in a way that causes them to die off.28 Lastly, probiotics can enhance the expression of tight junctions and stimulate the production of protective mucins. This strengthens the gut barrier, improving its ability to keep out pathogens.29

Your probiotic stands the best chance of working when it a.) contains strains that have been scientifically shown to support gut health in humans and b.) protects these strains through the earlier stages of digestion to ensure they make it to the colon alive. 

DS-01® 14 Day Gut Reset ticks both boxes and then some. The synbiotic (probiotic and prebiotic) has been studied in double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials (the gold standard of clinical testing) and its innovative delivery technology, the ViaCap®, uses a capsule-in-capsule system to deliver billions of live bacteria to the gut safely. 

With two daily capsules, DS-01® 14 Day Gut Reset restores healthy gut function by replenishing beneficial bacteria and strengthening the gut barrier within just two weeks.*30

2. Acute and Chronic Stress

At some point, we’ve all been told to trust our gut feelings, chew on a problem, or treat our gut like our second brain. More than just turns of phrase, these terms demonstrate the very real connection between our gut microbiome and our mood and cognition.

All types of stressors—from early-life trauma to occasional workplace anxiousness—can disrupt the gut via the gut-brain axis. 

The exact mechanisms underlying the gut-brain axis are still being explored.31 However, we know that the gut and nervous system communicate in several ways including neurotransmitter production, endocrine (hormone) signaling, the immune system, and gut metabolites (like short-chain fatty acids). 

For example, Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), a key hormone involved in the stress response, influences the gut through its signaling pathways within the gut-brain axis, involving neural, hormonal, and immune mechanisms.31 

In high amounts, CRF may cause inflammation and impact gut barrier function, resulting in dysbiosis and potentially damage to the colon. Stress has also been shown to reduce the number of beneficial bacteria in the microbiome over time.32,33

The gut-brain axis is a two-way street, meaning that dysbiosis can affect the synthesis of hormones and chemical compounds such as CRF, negatively impacting mood and cognitive function.34,35

Summary

The bidirectional gut-brain axis helps explain why your digestion may be out of whack when you feel stressed or anxious (cue: nervous poops).

How to recover:

It’s easier said than done, of course, but do your best to get adequate rest, resist the urge to pack your schedule too tight, and take other actions to keep stress levels down.

In cases when stress is impossible to avoid, your diet can help you respond to it. When we asked Sarkis Mazmanian, Ph.D., an award-winning microbiology researcher and Seed Scientific Advisor, for his #1 gut-brain axis tip, he was quick to recommend a “balanced, plant-based, minimally processed diet that is low in fat and sugar” and a science-backed probiotic. Aim for a wide range of colors and varieties of plants following stressful periods.36 These tend to be rich in antioxidant-rich polyphenols that can reduce the inflammation caused by stress.37,38 

Getting regular physical activity can also positively influence microbiome diversity while providing a healthy outlet for stress and enhancing mood.39,40 

3. Heavy Drinking

Your liver is the heaviest organ in your body, and it’s the one that’s primarily responsible for the (not-so-easy) task of processing toxins like alcohol. Even though alcohol is mainly metabolized in the liver, it can negatively affect other organs and systems too—including the gut microbiome.41 

Research on people with alcohol use disorder demonstrates that they are more likely than non-drinkers to have reductions in SCFAs, a higher abundance of pathogenic bacteria, and bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine.42,43 Even temporary bouts of binge drinking have been shown to reduce the richness of the gut microbiome and contribute to dysbiosis in preclinical models.44

This microbial disruption can impair the (already overtaxed) liver’s ability to do its job, via the gut-liver axis. (Yes, if it isn’t already clear, your gut microbiota connects to everything).45

EXPLORE FURTHER: Why Does Alcohol Make You Poop?

Summary

Alcohol disrupts the balance of bacteria in the gut microbiome; reducing the populations of beneficial bacteria in the gut while promoting the growth of harmful ones.

How to recover: 

Drinking doesn’t need to be an all-or-nothing affair: Start by adopting a mindset of moderation. Research shows that even taking short breaks in drinking or reducing the amount of alcohol you consume may help the gut barrier recover and positively impact the gut microbiome.46,47 

When you do imbibe, be sure to drink enough water—both to help speed up digestive transit time and to maintain microbial homeostasis.48 

4. Lack of sleep

Sleep issues can also disrupt the microbiome, though researchers aren’t exactly sure why. It could be that the environmental, psychological, and physical stressors that keep us tossing and turning can also harm our microbial composition and function.49 It’s also possible that sleep deprivation has a direct impact on the gut via cytokines—proteins that help dictate the immune response.50 

Whatever the reason, even occasional sleepless nights seem to leave a mark on our microbes. One study on nine men showed that just two nights of getting less than five hours of sleep was enough to change their gut’s bacterial landscape, disrupting  the balance of the two largest families of bacteria (Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes).51,52 

Summary

Both longer-term issues like insomnia and short-term sleep loss have been shown to disrupt the gut microbiome.

How to recover:

Consider this yet another reason to prioritize sleep—if not for your gut, then for your brain function, metabolism, and ability to fight infection.53,54,55

Bounce back from a less-than-stellar night by practicing good sleep hygiene—sticking to a consistent bedtime (and wake-up time), staying off screens in the hours before bed, and making sure your sleep space is dark, cold, and quiet. 

Your sleep quality will also benefit from some of the tips above: eat plenty of fiber throughout the day, watch the alcohol consumption, and practice stress management. 

5. Antibiotics

Antibiotics effectively fight off infectious bacteria—but in the process, they also wipe out some of the good bugs in your gut. Depending on the type and length of treatment, antibiotics could kill up to 30% of bacteria in the gut and impact up to 87% of the gut’s metabolic byproducts.56,57 

After your round of antibiotics is up, your gut will still be reeling from the aftermath of the attack. One study analyzed the gut microbiomes of people before and after taking a cocktail of antibiotics for four days. It found that while most of their microbiomes had returned to their original species richness after two months, they were still noticeably lacking in certain species that were present pre-treatment. These species remained undetected even six months after the antibiotics—a clear demonstration of the “antibiotic scarring,” or longer-term compositional changes, that can follow these medications.58

Certain antibiotics can impact the other biomes of the body, too, including the oral, vaginal, and skin microbiomes.59,60,61

Summary

Antibiotics effectively treat pathogenic bacteria, but they can also wipe out beneficial bacteria in the gut—sometimes for weeks or months at a time.

How to recover: 

After you take antibiotics, your microbiome is a bit of a blank slate, ready to be reestablished. If ever there was a time to be a stickler about gut health, it’s in the weeks following treatment. Eat plenty of fiber-rich foods, sleep, exercise, and rest to give your commensal bacteria what they need to set down roots and reestablish order moving forward. 

FAQs

How long does it take for the gut to recover from disruption? 

It totally depends on what the disruption was. The occasional slice of birthday cake will be relatively easy for the gut to recover from, and (barring any other hiccups) you should retain microbial balance shortly after. A weeks-long course of antibiotics, on the other hand, could take weeks or months to bounce back from. 

Recovery time also varies from person to person due to factors like genetics, baseline microbiome composition, and age. As we get older, we tend to have less of certain commensal bacteria in the gut, while our SCFA production actually seems to increase once we hit a certain age.62

How can I reset my gut microbiome? 

The best way to reset your gut microbiome after a disruption is to eat a high-fiber, plant-rich diet; minimize sugar, alcohol, and processed food; manage stress; get plenty of sleep and physical activity; and take a science-backed probiotic.63 

What do harmful bacteria do in the gut microbiome? 

When pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria enter your gut, they can outcompete resident microbes and cause them to die off. This can lower the diversity and resilience of your microbiome, reduce gut barrier integrity, and harm your ability to produce beneficial bacterial metabolites like SCFAs.64,65,66 Practically speaking, this can lead to issues like inflammation, digestive distress (read: trying trips to the bathroom), bloating, and gas. 

Over time, chronic bacterial imbalance may lead to more serious issues and infections. This is why it’s so important to use the days and weeks after a disruption to prioritize gut health.

The Key Insight

Alcohol, sugary foods, sleep loss, stress, and antibiotics are the main gut disruptors and they leave you more prone to dysbiosis (microbial imbalance). 

Your microbiome is incredibly resilient, but it can’t fight back against these intruders without your help. After you face a disruption, it’s best to eat a gut-friendly diet, take a probiotic, and prioritize rest so you can rebuild your army of beneficial bacteria and equip them to fight another day. 

Citations

  1. Shanahan, F., Ghosh, T. S., & O’Toole, P. W. (2020). The healthy microbiome—What is the definition of a healthy gut microbiome? Gastroenterology, 160(2), 483–494. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.057
  2. Zhang, Y., Zhu, X., Yu, X., Novák, P., Gui, Q., & Yin, K. (2023). Enhancing intestinal barrier efficiency: A novel metabolic diseases therapy. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1120168
  3. Di Vincenzo, F., Del Gaudio, A., Petito, V., Lopetuso, L. R., & Scaldaferri, F. (2023). Gut microbiota, intestinal permeability, and systemic inflammation: A narrative review. Internal and Emergency Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-023-03374-w
  4. Anwar, H., Iftikhar, A., Muzaffar, H., Almatroudi, A., Allemailem, K. S., Navaid, S., Saleem, S., & Khurshid, M. (2021). Biodiversity of gut microbiota: Impact of various host and environmental factors. BioMed Research International, 2021, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5575245
  5. Hrncir, T. (2022). Gut microbiota dysbiosis: Triggers, consequences, diagnostic and therapeutic options. Microorganisms, 10(3), 578. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10030578
  6. Niccolai, E., Baldi, S., Ricci, F., Russo, E., Nannini, G., Menicatti, M., Poli, G., Taddei, A., Bartolucci, G., Calabrò, A. S., Stingo, F. C., & Amedei, A. (2019). Evaluation and comparison of short chain fatty acids composition in gut diseases. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 25(36), 5543–5558. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v25.i36.5543
  7. Schlomann, B. H., & Parthasarathy, R. (2019). Timescales of gut microbiome dynamics. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 50, 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2019.09.011
  8. Banaszak, M., Górna, I., Woźniak, D., Przysławski, J., & Drzymała-Czyż, S. (2023). Association between gut dysbiosis and the occurrence of SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO. Microorganisms, 11(3), 573. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030573
  9. Cao, H., Liu, X., An, Y., Zhou, G., Liu, Y., Xu, M., Dong, W., Wang, S., Yan, F., Jiang, K., & Wang, B. (2017). Dysbiosis contributes to chronic constipation development via regulation of serotonin transporter in the intestine. Scientific Reports, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10835-8
  10. Kwon, H. J., Lim, J. H., Kang, D., Lim, S., Park, S. J., & Kim, J. H. (2019). Is stool frequency associated with the richness and community composition of gut microbiota? Intestinal Research, 17(3), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.5217/ir.2018.00149
  11. Wang, J., Choi, Y., Lee, J., Hwang, S., Gu, J., & Son, C. (2024). Clinical evidence of the link between gut microbiome and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome: A retrospective review. European Journal of Medical Research, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-024-01747-1
  12. Corbin, K. D., Carnero, E. A., Dirks, B., Igudesman, D., Yi, F., Marcus, A., Davis, T. L., Pratley, R. E., Rittmann, B. E., Krajmalnik-Brown, R., & Smith, S. R. (2023). Host-diet-gut microbiome interactions influence human energy balance: A randomized clinical trial. Nature Communications, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38778-x
  13. Xiong, R., Li, J., Cheng, J., Zhou, D., Wu, S., Huang, S., Saimaiti, A., Yang, Z., Gan, R., & Li, H. (2023). The role of gut microbiota in anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as the protective effects of dietary components. Nutrients, 15(14), 3258. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143258
  14. De Pessemier, B., Grine, L., Debaere, M., Maes, A., Paetzold, B., & Callewaert, C. (2021). Gut–skin axis: Current knowledge of the interrelationship between microbial dysbiosis and skin conditions. Microorganisms, 9(2), 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020353
  15. Erridge, C., Bennett-Guerrero, E., & Poxton, I. R. (2002). Structure and function of lipopolysaccharides. Microbes and Infection, 4(8), 837–851. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1286-4579(02)01604-0
  16. Madison, A. A., & Bailey, M. T. (2023). Link stress-related gut microbiota shifts to mental health outcomes. Biological Psychiatry, 95(4), 339–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.10.014
  17. De Pessemier, B., Grine, L., Debaere, M., Maes, A., Paetzold, B., & Callewaert, C. (2021). Gut–skin axis: Current knowledge of the interrelationship between microbial dysbiosis and skin conditions. Microorganisms, 9(2), 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020353
  18. Jiang, I., Yong, P. J., Allaire, C., & Bedaiwy, M. A. (2021). Intricate connections between the microbiota and endometriosis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(11), 5644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115644
  19. Anand, S., & Mande, S. S. (2022). Host-microbiome interactions: Gut-Liver axis and its connection with other organs. Npj Biofilms and Microbiomes, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522-022-00352-6
  20. Meng, E. X., Verne, G. N., & Zhou, Q. (2024). Macrophages and gut barrier function: Guardians of gastrointestinal health in post-inflammatory and post-infection responses. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(17), 9422. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179422
  21. Lee, S. H., Zhao, L., Park, S., Moore, L. V., Hamner, H. C., Galuska, D. A., & Blanck, H. M. (2023). High added sugars intake among US adults: Characteristics, eating occasions, and top sources, 2015–2018. Nutrients, 15(2), 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15020265
  22. Satokari, R. (2020). High intake of sugar and the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory gut bacteria. Nutrients, 12(5), 1348. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051348
  23. Pearce, V. H., Groisman, E. A., & Townsend, G. E. (2023). Dietary sugars silence the master regulator of carbohydrate utilization in human gut Bacteroides species. Gut Microbes, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2023.2221484
  24. Magnusson, K. R., Hauck, L., Jeffrey, B. M., Elias, V., Humphrey, A., Nath, R., Perrone, A., & Bermudez, L. E. (2015). Relationships between diet-related changes in the gut microbiome and cognitive flexibility. Neuroscience, 300, 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.05.016
  25. Baxter, N. T., Schmidt, A. W., Venkataraman, A., Kim, K. S., Waldron, C., & Schmidt, T. M. (2019). Dynamics of human gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in response to dietary interventions with three fermentable fibers. mBio, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.02566-18
  26. Jefferson, A., & Adolphus, K. (2019). The effects of intact cereal grain fibers, including wheat bran on the gut microbiota composition of healthy adults: A systematic review. Frontiers in Nutrition, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00033
  27. Silva, Y. P., Bernardi, A., & Frozza, R. L. (2020). The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2020.00025
  28. Horrocks, V., King, O. G., Yip, A. Y. G., Marques, I. M., & McDonald, J. a. K. (2023). Role of the gut microbiota in nutrient competition and protection against intestinal pathogen colonization. Microbiology, 169(8). https://doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.001377
  29. Zheng, Y., Zhang, Z., Tang, P., Wu, Y., Zhang, A., Li, D., Wang, C., Wan, J., Yao, H., & Yuan, C. (2023). Probiotics fortify intestinal barrier function: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Frontiers in Immunology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1143548
  30. Napier, B. A., Van Den Elzen, C., Al-Ghalith, G. A., Tierney, B. T., Evans, M., Stuivenberg, G., Reid, G., Gevers, D., Dhir, R., Mazmanian, S., Versalovic, J., Fasano, A., Blaser, M. J., & Simmons, S. L. (2024). MO1898 DAILY SUPPLEMENTATION WITH a MULTI-SPECIES SYNBIOTIC (DS-01) DURING AND AFTER ANTIBIOTIC TREATMENT PROTECTS AGAINST THE LOSS OF LOW-ABUNDANCE BACTERIAL SPECIES WHILE ENHANCING GUT BARRIER INTEGRITY. Gastroenterology, 166(5), S-1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-5085(24)03137-8
  31. Carabotti, M., Scirocco, A., Maselli, M. A., & Severi, C. (2015). The gut-brain axis: Interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Annals of Gastroenterology, 28(2), 203–209
  32. Chatoo, M., Li, Y., Ma, Z., Coote, J., Du, J., & Chen, X. (2018). Involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor and receptors in immune cells in irritable bowel syndrome. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.00021
  33. Zhang, H., Wang, Z., Wang, G., Song, X., Qian, Y., Liao, Z., Sui, L., Ai, L., & Xia, Y. (2023). Understanding the connection between gut homeostasis and psychological stress. Journal of Nutrition, 153(4), 924–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.01.026
  34. Needham, B. D., Funabashi, M., Adame, M. D., Wang, Z., Boktor, J. C., Haney, J., Wu, W., Rabut, C., Ladinsky, M. S., Hwang, S., Guo, Y., Zhu, Q., Griffiths, J. A., Knight, R., Bjorkman, P. J., Shapiro, M. G., Geschwind, D. H., Holschneider, D. P., Fischbach, M. A., & Mazmanian, S. K. (2022). A gut-derived metabolite alters brain activity and anxiety behaviour in mice. Nature, 602(7898), 647–653. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04396-8
  35. Ogbonnaya, E. S., Clarke, G., Shanahan, F., Dinan, T. G., Cryan, J. F., & O’Leary, O. F. (2015). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is regulated by the microbiome. Biological Psychiatry, 78(4), e7–e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.12.023
  36. McDonald, D., Hyde, E., Debelius, J. W., Morton, J. T., Gonzalez, A., Ackermann, G., Aksenov, A. A., Behsaz, B., Brennan, C., Chen, Y., Goldasich, L. D., Dorrestein, P. C., Dunn, R. R., Fahimipour, A. K., Gaffney, J., Gilbert, J. A., Gogul, G., Green, J. L., Hugenholtz, P., . . . Gunderson, B. (2018). American gut: an open platform for citizen science microbiome research. mSystems, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.1128/msystems.00031-18
  37. Crispi, S., Filosa, S., & Di Meo, F. (2018). Polyphenols-gut microbiota interplay and brain neuromodulation. Neural Regeneration Research, 13(12), 2055. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.241429
  38. Aravind, S. M., Wichienchot, S., Tsao, R., Ramakrishnan, S., & Chakkaravarthi, S. (2021). Role of dietary polyphenols on gut microbiota, their metabolites and health benefits. Food Research International, 142, 110189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110189
  39. Mailing, L. J., Allen, J. M., Buford, T. W., Fields, C. J., & Woods, J. A. (2019). Exercise and the gut microbiome: A review of the evidence, potential mechanisms, and implications for human health. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 47(2), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1249/jes.0000000000000183
  40. Hossain, M. N., Lee, J., Choi, H., Kwak, Y., & Kim, J. (2024). The impact of exercise on depression: How moving makes your brain and body feel better. Physical Activity and Nutrition, 28(2), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.20463/pan.2024.0015
  41. Lee, E., & Lee, J. (2020). Impact of drinking alcohol on gut microbiota: Recent perspectives on ethanol and alcoholic beverage. Current Opinion in Food Science, 37, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.10.001
  42. Litwinowicz, K., Choroszy, M., & Waszczuk, E. (2019). Changes in the composition of the human intestinal microbiome in alcohol use disorder: A systematic review. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 46(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2019.1669629
  43. Bishehsari, F., Magno, E., Swanson, G., Desai, V., Voigt, R. M., Forsyth, C. B., & Keshavarzian, A. (2017). Alcohol and gut-derived inflammation. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5513683/
  44. Rodríguez-González, A., Vitali, F., Moya, M., De Filippo, C., Passani, M. B., & Orio, L. (2021). Effects of alcohol binge drinking and oleoylethanolamide pretreatment in the gut microbiota. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2021.731910
  45. Anand, S., & Mande, S. S. (2022). Host-microbiome interactions: Gut-liver axis and its connection with other organs. Npj Biofilms and Microbiomes, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522-022-00352-6
  46. Leclercq, S., Matamoros, S., Cani, P. D., Neyrinck, A. M., Jamar, F., Stärkel, P., Windey, K., Tremaroli, V., Bäckhed, F., Verbeke, K., De Timary, P., & Delzenne, N. M. (2014). Intestinal permeability, gut-bacterial dysbiosis, and behavioral markers of alcohol-dependence severity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(42). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1415174111
  47. Ames, N. J., Barb, J. J., Schuebel, K., Mudra, S., Meeks, B. K., Tuason, R. T. S., Brooks, A. T., Kazmi, N., Yang, S., Ratteree, K., Diazgranados, N., Krumlauf, M., Wallen, G. R., & Goldman, D. (2020). Longitudinal gut microbiome changes in alcohol use disorder are influenced by abstinence and drinking quantity. Gut Microbes, 11(6), 1608–1631. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2020.1758010
  48. Sato, K., Hara-Chikuma, M., Yasui, M., Inoue, J., & Kim, Y. (2024). Sufficient water intake maintains the gut microbiota and immune homeostasis and promotes pathogen elimination. iScience, 27(6), 109903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.109903
  49. Li, Y., Hao, Y., Fan, F., & Zhang, B. (2018). The role of microbiome in insomnia, circadian disturbance and depression. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00669
  50. Smith, R. P., Easson, C., Lyle, S. M., Kapoor, R., Donnelly, C. P., Davidson, E. J., Parikh, E., Lopez, J. V., & Tartar, J. L. (2019). Gut microbiome diversity is associated with sleep physiology in humans. PLoS ONE, 14(10), e0222394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222394
  51. Benedict, C., Vogel, H., Jonas, W., Woting, A., Blaut, M., Schürmann, A., & Cedernaes, J. (2016). Gut microbiota and glucometabolic alterations in response to recurrent partial sleep deprivation in normal-weight young individuals. Molecular Metabolism, 5(12), 1175–1186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2016.10.003
  52. Qin, J., Li, R., Raes, J., Arumugam, M., Burgdorf, K. S., Manichanh, C., Nielsen, T., Pons, N., Levenez, F., Yamada, T., Mende, D. R., Li, J., Xu, J., Li, S., Li, D., Cao, J., Wang, B., Liang, H., Zheng, H., . . . Wang, J. (2010). A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature, 464(7285), 59–65. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08821
  53. Eugene, A. R., & Masiak, J. (2015). The neuroprotective aspects of sleep. MEDtube science, 3(1), 35–40. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4651462/
  54. Sharma, S., & Kavuru, M. (2010). Sleep and metabolism: An overview. International Journal of Endocrinology, 2010, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/270832
  55. Besedovsky, L., Lange, T., & Haack, M. (2019). The sleep-immune crosstalk in health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 99(3), 1325–1380. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00010.2018
  56. Dethlefsen, L., Huse, S., Sogin, M. L., & Relman, D. A. (2008). The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by Deep 16S RRNA sequencing. PLoS Biology, 6(11), e280. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060280
  57. Antunes, L. C. M., Han, J., Ferreira, R. B. R., Lolic, P., Borchers, C. H., & Finlay, B. B. (2011). Effect of antibiotic treatment on the intestinal metabolome. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 55(4), 1494–1503. https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.01664-10
  58. Anthony, W. E., Wang, B., Sukhum, K. V., D’Souza, A. W., Hink, T., Cass, C., Seiler, S., Reske, K. A., Coon, C., Dubberke, E. R., Burnham, C. D., Dantas, G., & Kwon, J. H. (2022). Acute and persistent effects of commonly used antibiotics on the gut microbiome and resistome in healthy adults. Cell Reports, 39(2), 110649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110649
  59. Ready, D., Lancaster, H., Qureshi, F., Bedi, R., Mullany, P., & Wilson, M. (2004). Effect of amoxicillin use on oral microbiota in young children. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 48(8), 2883–2887. https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.48.8.2883-2887.2004
  60. Tamarelle, J., Ma, B., Gajer, P., Humphrys, M. S., Terplan, M., Mark, K. S., Thiébaut, A. C. M., Forney, L. J., Brotman, R. M., Delarocque-Astagneau, E., Bavoil, P. M., & Ravel, J. (2019). Nonoptimal vaginal microbiota after azithromycin treatment for chlamydia trachomatis infection. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 221(4), 627–635. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiz499
  61. Jo, J., Harkins, C. P., Schwardt, N. H., Portillo, J. A., Zimmerman, M. D., Carter, C. L., Hossen, M. A., Peer, C. J., Polley, E. C., Dartois, V., Figg, W. D., Moutsopoulos, N. M., Segre, J. A., & Kong, H. H. (2021). Alterations of human skin microbiome and expansion of antimicrobial resistance after systemic antibiotics. Science Translational Medicine, 13(625). https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abd8077
  62. Badal, V. D., Vaccariello, E. D., Murray, E. R., Yu, K. E., Knight, R., Jeste, D. V., & Nguyen, T. T. (2020). The gut microbiome, aging, and longevity: A systematic review. Nutrients, 12(12), 3759. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123759
  63. Zmora, N., Suez, J., & Elinav, E. (2018). You are what you eat: Diet, health and the gut microbiota. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 16(1), 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-018-0061-2
  64. Lozupone, C. A., Stombaugh, J. I., Gordon, J. I., Jansson, J. K., & Knight, R. (2012). Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature, 489(7415), 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11550
  65. Pickard, J. M., Zeng, M. Y., Caruso, R., & Núñez, G. (2017). Gut microbiota: Role in pathogen colonization, immune responses, and inflammatory disease. Immunological Reviews, 279(1), 70–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12567
  66. Usuda, H., Okamoto, T., & Wada, K. (2021). Leaky gut: Effect of dietary fiber and fats on microbiome and intestinal barrier. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(14), 7613. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147613
Filed Under
DigestionHuman microbiome

Related Articles